https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dX3qJPHycXA&t=72s
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大羅孚計畫金字塔完成30年紀念 2019.5.30 ：I. M. Pei (貝聿銘) 102歲；I.M. Pei: Mandarin of Modernism 《貝聿銘－現代主義泰斗》
我在籌劃一討論會：大羅孚計畫金字塔完成30年紀念2019.5.30 ：I. M. Pei (貝聿銘) 102歲
約四月初，漢清講堂有一天/幾場的座談/presentations--敬邀您們參加。
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramide_du_Louvre
❄ Snow fell silently on the Louvre this morning! The cour Napoléon, the roof of the Islamic Arts department, and the arc du Carrousel are wearing a pretty white coat...
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Pierre Rosenberg《盧浮宮私人詞典．金字塔之爭》2014，華東師範大學出版社，526~28
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貝聿銘-現代主義泰斗(I. M. Pei- Mandarin of Modernism )-
麥可．坎奈爾著
蕭美惠譯
智庫股份有限公司出版日期:1996/02
《貝聿銘－現代主義泰斗》
貝聿銘
貝聿銘所到之處都引人注意。儘管它長袖善舞、八面玲瓏，與企業大老闆、藝術家和國家元首交情匪淺，私底下的貝聿銘仍是難以捉摸的。恍如童年時代四面高牆的祖宅，它的內心世界不是西方人所能了解的；；即使是他以前的合夥人也表示不曾真正跟他親近過。解開這謎團的線索就在上海複雜的社會階級，甚至在古老庭園的石頭和潺潺流水之間。
這是一本有關建築物和權力、移民和同化、美式奔放和中式收斂、實用主義和華麗報導、東方和西方的傳記。書中附有珍貴照片幾十幀，均為貝聿銘和世界名人合照及其代表性建築作品：如中國香山飯店、香港中銀大廈、甘迺迪紀念圖書館、美國國家藝廊東廂、巴黎羅浮宮金字塔等膾炙人口的經典之作。
作者簡介
麥可．坎奈爾
畢業於普林斯敦大學和哥倫比亞大學新聞學院，曾供稿紐約客、時代、新聞週刊、紐約時報雜誌、運動畫報和國際合眾社。目前與妻子住在紐約。
譯者簡介
蕭美惠
國立政治大學西洋語文學系畢業，現任報社國際祖召集人。
目錄
貝聿銘－現代主義泰斗－目錄
一位最傑出的同學----貝聿銘 王大閎
前言
第一章
金字塔之夜
第二章 上海與蘇州
第三章 一名劍橋的中國留學生
第四章 我們將改變這一切
第五章 未能實現的諾言
第六章 甘迺迪的祝福
第七章 成立建築師事務所
第八章 柯普利廣場上的窗戶
第九章 美國最敏感的地帶
第十章 不朽的建築
第十一章 辯護
第十二章 回歸中國
第十三章 壞風水
第十四章 尾聲----
The Louvre pyramid is a pyramid made of glass and metal in the middle of the Cour Napoléon of the Louvre museum in Paris. It houses the main entrance to the museum. It was inaugurated by President François Mitterrand on March 4, 19881.
Commissioned by François Mitterrand in 1983, the pyramid was designed by Chinese-American architect IM Pei. The metal structure that supports the glass cladding is made of steel and aluminum and weighs 200 tons; it is 21.64 meters on a square base of 35.42 meters. It is covered with 603 diamonds and 70 glass triangles and is the first large building to use laminated glass.
Although the pyramid has aroused great controversy at the presentation of his project in 1984, it became the beginning of the twenty-first century the third work of the Louvre's most popular after the Mona Lisa and the Venus de Milo2.
Summary
1 Background
1.1 An idea from the 19th century
1.2 Conduct of the proposal
1.3 Construction
2 Controversies
3 Architecture
3.1 The Louvre Pyramid
3.2 The inverted pyramid
3.3 The prowess of transparency
4 Popular culture
4.1 The Louvre meridian
5 Projects and renovation works
5.1 New lighting
5.2 Project "Pyramid"
6 Notes and references
7 See also
7.1 Bibliography
7.2 Related article
7.3 External links
Context
On September 24, 1981, the President of the Republic François Mitterrand announced at a press conference his intention to install the Louvre Museum in the entire palace, a part then being occupied by the Ministry of Finance. The goal of Mitterrand is to make the Louvre a "mass museum", to initiate a museum revolution 3. In October 1982, Émile Biasini is named responsible for the Grand Louvre project which is part of the Grands Travaux (Big Operations). Architecture and Urbanism) whose idea was launched on July 27, 1981. Without resorting to the procedure of the architectural competition or the call for tenders, François Mitterrand chose the architect Ieoh Ming Pei who accepted the commissioned in June 1983 and proposed a plan to use the Napoleon courtyard as a new central entrance (a central lobby was a long-needed improvement to facilitate public access through the front door of the building). Denon wing, insufficient entry for such a project), which would give access not only to the existing rooms, but also to the spaces liberated from the Richelieu wing4.
An idea from the nineteenth century
A pyramid in the Napoleon courtyard was initially proposed for the celebrations of the French Revolution, especially for the centenary (cyclopean pyramid project of the architect Louis Ernest Lheureux of neo-Aztec style, for 18895). We also find this idea in a small booklet "Memoirs on two great obligations to be filled by the French" written by Bernard François Balzac and published in 1809. One of these obligations was to raise, in the courtyard of the Louvre, a pyramid that would be a national monument of recognition to the Emperor (Napoleon). It is possible that the architect Ieoh Ming Pei was made aware of this proposal when he chose the shape of a pyramid.
Conduct of the proposal
In the first project presented to François Mitterrand by Ieoh Ming Pei on June 21, 1983, the pyramid is integrated into his final project in 1984: the goal is to build a large, bright entrance hall with a shape that contrasts with the surrounding buildings7.
Marcel Herfray, the government commissioner and head of the central administration, is the legal director of the operation.
An idea from the nineteenth century
A pyramid in the Napoleon courtyard was initially proposed for the celebrations of the French Revolution, especially for the centenary (cyclopean pyramid project of the architect Louis Ernest Lheureux of neo-Aztec style, for 18895). We also find this idea in a small booklet "Memoirs on two great obligations to be filled by the French" written by Bernard François Balzac and published in 1809. One of these obligations was to raise, in the courtyard of the Louvre, a pyramid that would be a national monument of recognition to the Emperor (Napoleon). It is possible that the architect Ieoh Ming Pei was made aware of this proposal when he chose the shape of a pyramid.
Conduct of the proposal
In the first project presented to François Mitterrand by Ieoh Ming Pei on June 21, 1983, the pyramid is integrated into his final project in 1984: the goal is to build a large, bright entrance hall with a shape that contrasts with the surrounding buildings7.
Marcel Herfray, the government commissioner and head of the central administration, is the legal director of the operation.
Construction
The pyramid in 1987
The pyramid of the Louvre was built between 1985 and 1989. It was first inaugurated on March 4, 19881 by François Miterrand, then a second time on March 29, 1989: on the occasion of the opening to the public, a more modest ceremony , with ribbon cut, was held in the presence of the President 8.
controversies
Comparison of approximate profiles of notable monuments of pyramidal or almost pyramidal shape.
The official announcement of the project took place at the hearing of Mr. Pei January 23, 1984 before the National Commission of Historic Monuments, which he is disconcerted in front of the perplexity of the members of the Commission. The project is made public the next day in a headline of France-Soir titrant: "The new Louvre is already scandal". Published on the front page of the daily, the photo of the pyramid is controversial. Much of the press is also hateful: "Zero degree of architecture" according to Pierre Vaisse du Figaro, "Call for insurrection" for Jean Dutourd9,10. Opponents of the project, such as the art historian André Fermigier (who personally nicknamed the project "The zircon") then compare the pyramid to a "House of the dead" to a "funnel", evoking alternately this object everything
Architecture
Night view on the big pyramid and the little one, on the left.
The Louvre pyramid
The pyramid is not placed on the historical axis of Paris. But the "Great Pyramid" is not alone: it is indeed surrounded by three smaller replicas constituting skylights and a fifth pyramid, inverted, built under the Carrousel du Louvre.
It consists of a 95-tonne steel structure and a 105-tonne aluminum chassis. Its structure is composed of a mesh of 2,100 nodes, 6,000 bars, 603 diamonds22 and 70 triangles of glass whose glazing has a thickness of 21 mm. In reality, there are few real diamonds, most of the pieces are parallelograms that are almost diamonds and which, in perspective, give the impression of being lozenges23. Its surface at the base is 1,254 m2, the width of its square of 35,42 meters. It measures 21.64 meters in height while the three replicas, surrounding the main pyramid lined with triangular water basins, make only five. The fifth is seven meters high24.
The inverted pyramid
Main article: Inverted pyramid of the Louvre.
The inverted Pyramid of the Louvre is built in the same constructive logic but with only 7 triangles at the base of each face. It consists of 84 diamonds and 28 triangles.
This reversed pyramid can not be directly in contact with the outside because the water would accumulate there, it is covered by a glazed surface of the same almost flat type, hidden at the level of the natural ground by the hedges in the center of the place of the Carrousel.
The prowess of transparency
The architect had the requirement that the glass that composes the facets of the construction is as transparent as possible. But at the time this represented a technical challenge that remained to be realized.
Indeed, any glass contains impurities that have the property of absorbing more light as the glazing is thicker23. The main contributors to this absorption of light are the heavy metals that are incorporated into the raw material during the melting of the glass. That's why it was very difficult to meet the requirements of the architect and deliver a glass as colorless as possible despite the 2.1 cm thick plates.
I.M.Pei rejected the idea of using techniques capable of neutralizing iron oxides including, for example, the addition of arsenic, because he knew that they solarize over time23; too exposed to the sun, they turn yellow and turn brown.
The French glassware company that won the contract opted for the supply of a type of glass that is not sensitive for this purpose.
In order to meet the challenge, the engineers of this company produced a glass-float using the technique of an electric furnace, consisting of graphite electrodes, or molybdenum23.
Popular culture
The pyramid has 673 glass panels, a number close enough to 666 to feed the esoteric interpretations. An urban legend wants this number of 666 glass panels was chosen at the "express request" of President Mitterrand, 666 being according to the Apocalypse, the "Figure of the Beast". This controversy resumed in 2003 with the release of Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code (Chapter 4).
With some calculations and based on a photograph of the face of the building with the entrance, it is however easy to confirm the account of 673 plates. Counting the number of plates along an edge connected to the top of the pyramid gives us 18 plates. The pyramid being regular, this number is the same for each edge and allows us to calculate the number of plates per full face: indeed, it is easily calculated according to the following {\ displaystyle u_ {n} = u_ {n- 1} + n} {\ displaystyle u_ {n} = u_ {n-1} + n}, with {\ displaystyle n} n the number of plates per edge and {\ displaystyle u_ {1} = 1} u_ {1 } = 1 (of which {\ displaystyle n} n triangular plates at the base). We obtain the result {\ displaystyle u_ {18} = 171} u _ {{18}} = 171. Multiplied by 4 faces, this gives 684 plates. To this total must be removed the missing plates due to the opening on the face that we will call "before", opening serving as entrance to the building. This opening is divisible into three horizontal rows. A first row of 4 triangles, which are not to be subtracted from the total because they are not whole plates that have been removed: simply the diamonds above the opening that have been cut, and this does not affect the number of plates (on the other hand, it changes the ratio between the number of lozenges and the number of triangles). A second row of 5 diamonds, and finally a third row, at the base, of 6 triangles. This gives us a total of 11 plates removed to form the entrance to the building. So we arrive at a total of 673 plates.
Architecture
Night view on the big pyramid and the little one, on the left.
The Louvre pyramid
The pyramid is not placed on the historical axis of Paris. But the "Great Pyramid" is not alone: it is indeed surrounded by three smaller replicas constituting skylights and a fifth pyramid, inverted, built under the Carrousel du Louvre.
It consists of a 95-tonne steel structure and a 105-tonne aluminum chassis. Its structure is composed of a mesh of 2,100 nodes, 6,000 bars, 603 diamonds22 and 70 triangles of glass whose glazing has a thickness of 21 mm. In reality, there are few real diamonds, most of the pieces are parallelograms that are almost diamonds and which, in perspective, give the impression of being lozenges23. Its surface at the base is 1,254 m2, the width of its square of 35,42 meters. It measures 21.64 meters in height while the three replicas, surrounding the main pyramid lined with triangular water basins, make only five. The fifth is seven meters high24.
The inverted pyramid
Main article: Inverted pyramid of the Louvre.
The inverted Pyramid of the Louvre is built in the same constructive logic but with only 7 triangles at the base of each face. It consists of 84 diamonds and 28 triangles.
This reversed pyramid can not be directly in contact with the outside because the water would accumulate there, it is covered by a glazed surface of the same almost flat type, hidden at the level of the natural ground by the hedges in the center of the place of the Carrousel.
The prowess of transparency
The architect had the requirement that the glass that composes the facets of the construction is as transparent as possible. But at the time this represented a technical challenge that remained to be realized.
Indeed, any glass contains impurities that have the property of absorbing more light as the glazing is thicker23. The main contributors to this absorption of light are the heavy metals that are incorporated into the raw material during the melting of the glass. That's why it was very difficult to meet the requirements of the architect and deliver a glass as colorless as possible despite the 2.1 cm thick plates.
I.M.Pei rejected the idea of using techniques capable of neutralizing iron oxides including, for example, the addition of arsenic, because he knew that they solarize over time23; too exposed to the sun, they turn yellow and turn brown.
The French glassware company that won the contract opted for the supply of a type of glass that is not sensitive for this purpose.
In order to meet the challenge, the engineers of this company produced a glass-float using the technique of an electric furnace, consisting of graphite electrodes, or molybdenum23.
Popular culture
The pyramid has 673 glass panels, a number close enough to 666 to feed the esoteric interpretations. An urban legend wants this number of 666 glass panels was chosen at the "express request" of President Mitterrand, 666 being according to the Apocalypse, the "Figure of the Beast". This controversy resumed in 2003 with the release of Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code (Chapter 4).
With some calculations and based on a photograph of the face of the building with the entrance, it is however easy to confirm the account of 673 plates. Counting the number of plates along an edge connected to the top of the pyramid gives us 18 plates. The pyramid being regular, this number is the same for each edge and allows us to calculate the number of plates per full face: indeed, it is easily calculated according to the following {\ displaystyle u_ {n} = u_ {n- 1} + n} {\ displaystyle u_ {n} = u_ {n-1} + n}, with {\ displaystyle n} n the number of plates per edge and {\ displaystyle u_ {1} = 1} u_ {1 } = 1 (of which {\ displaystyle n} n triangular plates at the base). We obtain the result {\ displaystyle u_ {18} = 171} u _ {{18}} = 171. Multiplied by 4 faces, this gives 684 plates. To this total must be removed the missing plates due to the opening on the face that we will call "before", opening serving as entrance to the building. This opening is divisible into three horizontal rows. A first row of 4 triangles, which are not to be subtracted from the total because they are not whole plates that have been removed: simply the diamonds above the opening that have been cut, and this does not affect the number of plates (on the other hand, it changes the ratio between the number of lozenges and the number of triangles). A second row of 5 diamonds, and finally a third row, at the base, of 6 triangles. This gives us a total of 11 plates removed to form the entrance to the building. So we arrive at a total of 673 plates.
Architecture
Night view on the big pyramid and the little one, on the left.
The Louvre pyramid
The pyramid is not placed on the historical axis of Paris. But the "Great Pyramid" is not alone: it is indeed surrounded by three smaller replicas constituting skylights and a fifth pyramid, inverted, built under the Carrousel du Louvre.
It consists of a 95-tonne steel structure and a 105-tonne aluminum chassis. Its structure is composed of a mesh of 2,100 nodes, 6,000 bars, 603 diamonds22 and 70 triangles of glass whose glazing has a thickness of 21 mm. In reality, there are few real diamonds, most of the pieces are parallelograms that are almost diamonds and which, in perspective, give the impression of being lozenges23. Its surface at the base is 1,254 m2, the width of its square of 35,42 meters. It measures 21.64 meters in height while the three replicas, surrounding the main pyramid lined with triangular water basins, make only five. The fifth is seven meters high24.
The inverted pyramid
Main article: Inverted pyramid of the Louvre.
The inverted Pyramid of the Louvre is built in the same constructive logic but with only 7 triangles at the base of each face. It consists of 84 diamonds and 28 triangles.
This reversed pyramid can not be directly in contact with the outside because the water would accumulate there, it is covered by a glazed surface of the same almost flat type, hidden at the level of the natural ground by the hedges in the center of the place of the Carrousel.
The prowess of transparency
The architect had the requirement that the glass that composes the facets of the construction is as transparent as possible. But at the time this represented a technical challenge that remained to be realized.
Indeed, any glass contains impurities that have the property of absorbing more light as the glazing is thicker23. The main contributors to this absorption of light are the heavy metals that are incorporated into the raw material during the melting of the glass. That's why it was very difficult to meet the requirements of the architect and deliver a glass as colorless as possible despite the 2.1 cm thick plates.
I.M.Pei rejected the idea of using techniques capable of neutralizing iron oxides including, for example, the addition of arsenic, because he knew that they solarize over time23; too exposed to the sun, they turn yellow and turn brown.
The French glassware company that won the contract opted for the supply of a type of glass that is not sensitive for this purpose.
In order to meet the challenge, the engineers of this company produced a glass-float using the technique of an electric furnace, consisting of graphite electrodes, or molybdenum23.
Popular culture
The pyramid has 673 glass panels, a number close enough to 666 to feed the esoteric interpretations. An urban legend wants this number of 666 glass panels was chosen at the "express request" of President Mitterrand, 666 being according to the Apocalypse, the "Figure of the Beast". This controversy resumed in 2003 with the release of Dan Brown's novel Da Vinci Code (Chapter 4).
With some calculations and based on a photograph of the face of the building with the entrance, it is however easy to confirm the account of 673 plates. Counting the number of plates along an edge connected to the top of the pyramid gives us 18 plates. The pyramid being regular, this number is the same for each edge and allows us to calculate the number of plates per full face: indeed, it is easily calculated according to the following {\ displaystyle u_ {n} = u_ {n- 1} + n} {\ displaystyle u_ {n} = u_ {n-1} + n}, with {\ displaystyle n} n the number of plates per edge and {\ displaystyle u_ {1} = 1} u_ {1 } = 1 (of which {\ displaystyle n} n triangular plates at the base). We obtain the result {\ displaystyle u_ {18} = 171} u _ {{18}} = 171. Multiplied by 4 faces, this gives 684 plates. To this total must be removed the missing plates due to the opening on the face that we will call "before", opening serving as entrance to the building. This opening is divisible into three horizontal rows. A first row of 4 triangles, which are not to be subtracted from the total because they are not whole plates that have been removed: simply the diamonds above the opening that have been cut, and this does not affect the number of plates (on the other hand, it changes the ratio between the number of lozenges and the number of triangles). A second row of 5 diamonds, and finally a third row, at the base, of 6 triangles. This gives us a total of 11 plates removed to form the entrance to the building. So we arrive at a total of 673 plates.
