Leon Battista Alberti[1] (February 18, 1404 – April 20, 1472) was an
Italian author, artist,
architect,
poet,
priest,
linguist,
philosopher,
cryptographer and general
Renaissance humanist polymath. Although he is often characterized as an "architect" exclusively, as James Beck has observed,
[2]
"to single out one of Leon Battista's 'fields' over others as somehow
functionally independent and self-sufficient is of no help at all to any
effort to characterize Alberti's extensive explorations in the fine
arts." Alberti's life was described in
Giorgio Vasari's
Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori or 'Lives of the most excellent painters, sculptors and architects'.
Childhood and education
An Italian
humanist, Alberti is often seen as a model of the
Renaissance "
universal man".
[3] He was born in
Genoa, one of two
illegitimate sons of a wealthy
Florentine merchant, Lorenzo Alberti. Leon Battista's mother, Bianca Fieschi, was a
Bolognese widow who died during an outbreak of
bubonic plague. Like many other families, the Albertis had been expelled from their native city,
Florence, by the republican government, run by the
Albizzis. At the time of Leon Battista's birth, his father Lorenzo lived in
Genoa, but the family soon moved to
Venice, where Lorenzo ran the family
bank with his brother. Lorenzo married again in 1408. The ban on the family was lifted in 1428, and that same year Leon visited
Florence for the first time.
Alberti received the best education then available to an Italian
nobleman. From around 1414 to 1418 he studied classics at the famous
school of
Gasparino Barzizza in Padua. He then completed his education at the
University of Bologna,
where he studied law. In his youth, according to stories, Alberti
could—with his feet together—jump over a man's head, he was a superb
horseman, and he "learned music without a master, and yet his
compositions were admired by professional judges."
[4]
After the death of his father, Alberti was supported by his uncles. In his twenties Alberti wrote
On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Letters, which he dedicated to his brother Carlo, also a scholar and writer. Alberti's Latin comedy,
Philodoxus,
aimed to teach that "a man dedicated to study and hard work can attain
glory, just as well as a rich and fortunate man." For a short time it
was passed as a genuinely antique Roman play. Like
Petrarch, who had been the first famous
philologist
to study the works of the ancient Roman poets, Alberti loved classics,
but he compared continual reading and rereading in libraries. Later he
also complained, that "the learned don't become rich, or if they do
become rich from literary pursuits, the sources of their wealth are
shameful." Other early works,
Amator (ca. 1429),
Ecatonfilea (ca. 1429), and
Deiphira (ca. 1429–1434), dealt with love, virtues, and failed relationships.
Study of perspective
Alberti regarded mathematics as the common ground of art and the
sciences. "To make clear my exposition in writing this brief commentary
on
painting," Alberti began his treatise,
Della Pittura (On Painting), "I will take first from the mathematicians those things with which my subject is concerned."
[5]
This treatise (
Della pittura ) was also known in Latin as
De Pictura, and it relied in its scientific content on classical
optics in determining
perspective
as a geometric instrument of artistic and architectural representation.
Alberti was well-versed in the sciences of his age. His knowledge of
optics was connected to the handed-down long-standing tradition of the
Kitab al-manazir (
The Optics;
De aspectibus) of the Arab polymath
Alhazen (
Ibn al-Haytham, d. ca. 1041), which was mediated by Franciscan optical workshops of the 13th-century
Perspectivae traditions of scholars such as
Roger Bacon,
John Peckham and
Witelo (similar influences are also traceable in the third commentary of
Lorenzo Ghiberti,
Commentario terzo).
[6]
In both
Della pittura and
De statua, a short treatise on
sculpture, Alberti stressed that "all steps of learning should be sought from nature."
[7]
The ultimate aim of an artist is to imitate nature. Painters and
sculptors strive "through by different skills, at the same goal, namely
that as nearly as possible the work they have undertaken shall appear to
the observer to be similar to the real objects of nature."
[7]
However, Alberti did not mean that artists should imitate nature
objectively, as it is, but the artist should be especially attentive to
beauty, "for in painting beauty is as pleasing as it is necessary."
[7]
The work of art is, according to Alberti, so constructed that it is
impossible to take anything away from it or add anything to it, without
impairing the beauty of the whole. Beauty was for Alberti "the harmony
of all parts in relation to one another," and subsequently "this concord
is realized in a particular number, proportion, and arrangement
demanded by harmony." Alberti's thoughts on harmony were not new—they
could be traced back to Pythagoras—but he set them in a fresh context,
which fit in well with the contemporary aesthetic discourse.
In Rome, Alberti had plenty of time to study its ancient sites, ruins, and objects. His detailed observations, included in his
De Re Aedificatoria (1452,
Ten Books of Architecture),
[8] were patterned after the
De architectura by the Roman architect and engineer
Vitruvius (
fl.
46-30 B.C.). The work was the first architectural treatise of the
Renaissance. It covered a wide range of subjects, from history to town
planning, and engineering to the philosophy of beauty.
De re aedificatoria, a large and expensive book, was not fully published until 1485, after which it became a major reference for architects.
[9] However, the book was written "not only for craftsmen but also for anyone interested in the noble arts," as Alberti put it.
[citation needed] Originally published in Latin, the first Italian edition came out in 1546. and the standard Italian edition by
Cosimo Bartoli was published in 1550. Pope
Nicholas V,
to whom Alberti dedicated the whole work, dreamed of rebuilding the
city of Rome, but he managed to realize only a fragment of his visionary
plans. Through his book, Alberti opened up his theories and ideals of
the Florentine Renaissance to architects, scholars and others.
Alberti wrote
I Libri della famiglia—which discussed
education, marriage, household management, and money—in the Tuscan
dialect. The work was not printed until 1843. Like
Erasmus
decades later, Alberti stressed the need for a reform in education. He
noted that "the care of very young children is women's work, for nurses
or the mother," and that at the earliest possible age children should be
taught the alphabet.
[7]
With great hopes, he gave the work to his family to read, but in his
autobiography Alberti confesses that "he could hardly avoid feeling
rage, moreover, when he saw some of his relatives openly ridiculing both
the whole work and the author's futile enterprise along it."
[7] Momus, written between 1443 and 1450, was a misogynist comedy about the Olympian gods. It has been considered as a
roman à clef—
Jupiter has been identified in some sources as Pope Eugenius IV and Pope Nicholas V. Alberti borrowed many of its characters from
Lucian,
one of his favorite Greek writers. The name of its hero, Momus, refers
to the Greek word for blame or criticism. After being expelled from
heaven, Momus, the god of mockery, is eventually castrated. Jupiter and
the other gods come down to earth also, but they return to heaven after
Jupiter breaks his nose in a great storm.
Architectural works
For the Rucellai
[10] family in Florence Alberti designed several buildings, the façade of
Palazzo Rucellai, executed by
Bernardo Rosselino, the façade of
Santa Maria Novella, the marble-clad shrine of the Holy Sepulchre, and perhaps also the Capella Rucellai.
Some dates vary from source to source; these come from Franco Borsi.
Leon Battista Alberti. (New York: Harper & Row,1977)
- S. Francesco, Tempio Malatestiano, Rimini (1447,1453–60)
- Façade of Palazzo Rucellai (1446–51)
- Completion of the facade of Santa Maria Novella, Florence (1448–70).
- San Sebastiano, Mantua (begun 1458)
- Pienza, possibly as consultant (1459–62)
- Sepolcro Rucellai in San Pancrazio (1467)
- Tribune for Santissima Annunziata, Florence (1470, completed with alterations, 1477).
- Sant'Andrea, Mantua (begun 1471)
Other works and legacy
Among Alberti's smaller studies, pioneering in their field, were a treatise in
cryptography,
De componendis cifris, and the first Italian
grammar. With the Florentine cosmographer
Paolo Toscanelli he collaborated in astronomy, a close science to geography at that time, and produced a small Latin work on geography,
Descriptio urbis Romae (
The Panorama of the City of Rome). Just a few years before his death, Alberti completed
De iciarchia (
On Ruling the Household), a dialogue about Florence during the
Medici rule. Alberti died on April 25, 1472 in Rome.
As an artist, Alberti distinguished himself from the ordinary craftsman, educated in workshops. He was a
humanist,
and part of the rapidly expanding entourage of intellectuals and
artisans supported by the courts of the princes and lords of the time.
Alberti, as a member of noble family and as part of the Roman
curia, had special status. He was a welcomed guest at the
Este court in
Ferrara, and in
Urbino he spent part of the hot-weather season with the
soldier-prince Federico III da Montefeltro.
[citation needed] The
Duke of Urbino was a shrewd military commander, who generously spent money on the
patronage of art. Alberti planned to dedicate his
treatise on architecture to his friend.
[citation needed]
Giorgio Vasari, who argued that historical progress in art reached its peak in
Michelangelo,
emphasized Alberti's scholarly achievements, not his artistic talents:
"He spent his time finding out about the world and studying the
proportions of antiquities; but above all, following his natural genius,
he concentrated on writing rather than on applied work." (from
Lives of the Artists).
[citation needed] Leonardo, who ironically called himself "an uneducated person" (
omo senza lettere),
followed Alberti in the view that painting is science. However, as a
scientist Leonardo was more empirical than Alberti, who was a theorist
and did not have similar interest in practice. Alberti believed in ideal
beauty, but Leonardo filled his notebooks with observations on human
proportions, page after page, ending with the famous drawing on the
Vitruvian man, a human figure related to a square and a circle.
"We painters," said Alberti in
On Painting, but as a painter,
or sculptor, Alberti was a dilettante. "In painting Alberti achieved
nothing of any great importance or beauty," wrote Vasari.
[citation needed]
"The very few paintings of his that are extant are far from perfect,
but this is not surprising since he devoted himself more to his studies
than to draughtsmanship."
Jacob Burckhardt portrayed Alberti in
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
as a truly universal genius. "And Leonardo da Vinci was to Alberti as
the finisher to the beginner, as the master to the dilettante. Would
only that Vasari's work were here supplemented by a description like
that of Alberti! The colossal outlines of Leonardo's nature can never be
more than dimly and distantly conceived."
[4] Burckhardt also mentions Alberti's love for animals. He had a pet dog, a mongrel, for whom he wrote a
panegyric,
Canis).
[citation needed]
Alberti is said to be in Mantegna's great frescoes in the
Camera degli Sposi, the older man dressed in dark red clothes, who whispers in the ear of
Ludovico Gonzaga, the ruler of Mantua.
[citation needed] In Alberti's self-portrait, a large
plaquette,
he is clothed as a Roman. To the left of his profile is a winged eye.
On the reverse side is the question, Quid tum? (what then), taken from
Virgil's
Eclogues: "So what, if Amyntas is dark? (
quid tum si fuscus Amyntas?) Violets are black, and hyacinths are black."
[citation needed]
Contributions
Alberti made a variety of contributions to several fields:
- Alberti was the creator of a theory called "historia". In his treatise De pictura
(1435) he explains the theory, of the accumulation of people, animals,
and buildings, which create harmony amongst each other, and "hold the
eye of the learned and unlearned spectator for a long while with a
certain sense of pleasure and emotion". De pictura ("On Painting") contained the first scientific study of perspective. An Italian translation of De pictura (Della pittura) was published in 1436, one year after the original Latin version and addressed Filippo Brunelleschi
in the preface. The Latin version had been dedicated to Alberti's
humanist patron, Gianfrancesco Gonzaga of Mantua. He also wrote works on
sculpture, De Statua.
- Alberti used his artistic treatises to propound a new humanistic
theory of art. He drew on his contacts with early Quattrocento artists
such as Brunelleschi and Masaccio to provide a practical handbook for
the renaissance artist.
- Alberti wrote an influential work on architecture, De Re Aedificatoria, which by the 18th century had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English. An English translation was by Giacomo Leoni in the early 18th century. Newer translations are now available.
- Whilst Alberti's treatises on painting and architecture have been
hailed as the founding texts of a new form of art, breaking from the
gothic past, it is impossible to know the extent of their practical
impact within his lifetime. His praise of the Calumny of Apelles led to
several attempts to emulate it, including paintings by Botticelli and
Signorelli. His stylistic ideals have been put into practice in the
works of Mantegna, Piero della Francesca and Fra Angelico.
But how far Alberti was responsible for these innovations and how far
he was simply articulating the trends of the artistic movement, with
which his practical experience had made him familiar, is impossible to
ascertain.
- He was so skilled in Latin verse that a comedy he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled Philodoxius, would later deceive the younger Aldus Manutius, who edited and published it as the genuine work of 'Lepidus Comicus'.
- He has been credited with being the author, or alternatively the designer, of the woodcut illustrations of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, a strange fantasy novel.[11]
- He took great interest in studying the ruins of classical architecture in Rome and elsewhere. At Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V in the restoration of the papal palace and of the restoration of the Roman aqueduct of Acqua Vergine, which debouched into a simple basin designed by Alberti, which was swept away later by the Baroque Trevi Fountain. At Mantua he designed the church of Sant'Andrea, and at Rimini the church of San Francesco. On a commission from the Rucellai family he completed the principal facade of the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence
which had been begun in the previous century. He also built the facade
for the family palace in the Via della Vigna Nuova, known as the Palazzo Rucellai, though it is not exactly clear what his role as designer was.
- Alberti is also now thought to have had an important role in the designing of Pienza,
a village that had been called Corsignano, but which was redesigned
beginning around 1459. It was the birthplace of Aeneas Silvius
Piccolomini, Pope Pius II,
in whose employ Alberti served. Pius II wanted to use the village as a
retreat but needed for it to reflect the dignity of his position. The
design, which radically transformed the center of the town, included a
palace for the pope, a church, a town hall and a building for the
bishops who would accompany the Pope on his trips. Pienza is considered
an early example of Renaissance urban planning.
- Some studies[12] propose that the Villa Medici in Fiesole might owe its design to Alberti, not to Michelozzo, and that it then became the prototype of the Renaissance villa. Maybe also that this hilltop dwelling, commissioned by Giovanni de' Medici, Cosimo il Vecchio's
second son, with its view over the city, is the very first example of a
Renaissance villa: that is to say it follows the Albertian criteria for
rendering a country dwelling a "villa suburbana". Under this
perspective the Villa Medici in Fiesole could therefore be considered
the "muse" for numerous other buildings, not only in the Florence area,
which from the end of the 15th century onwards find inspiration and
creative innovation here.
- Apart from his treatises on the arts, Alberti also wrote: Philodoxus ("Lover of Glory", 1424), De commodis litterarum atque incommodis ("On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Literary Studies", 1429), Intercoenales ("Table Talk", ca. 1429), Della famiglia ("On the Family", begun 1432) Vita S. Potiti ("Life of St. Potitus", 1433), De iure (On Law, 1437), Theogenius ("The Origin of the Gods", ca. 1440), Profugorium ab aerumna ("Refuge from Mental Anguish",), Momus (1450) and De Iciarchia ("On the Prince", 1468).These and other works were translated and printed in Venice by the humanist Cosimo Bartoli in 1586.
- Alberti was an accomplished cryptographer by the standard of his day, and invented the first polyalphabetic cipher which is now known as the Alberti cipher and machine-assisted encryption using his Cipher Disk.
The polyalphabetic cipher was, at least in principle, for it was not
properly used for several hundred years, the most significant advance in
cryptography since before Julius Caesar's time. Cryptography historian David Kahn
titles him the "Father of Western Cryptography", pointing to three
significant advances in the field which can be attributed to Alberti: "the
earliest Western exposition of cryptanalysis, the invention of
polyalphabetic substitution, and the invention of enciphered code" (David Kahn (1967). The codebreakers: the story of secret writing. New York: MacMillan.).
- According to Alberti himself, in a short autobiography written c.
1438 in Latin and in the third person, (many but not all scholars
consider this work to be an autobiography) he was capable of "standing
with his feet together, and springing over a man's head." The
autobiography survives thanks to an 18th century transcription by
Antonio Muratori. Alberti also claimed that he "excelled in all bodily
exercises; could, with feet tied, leap over a standing man; could in the
great cathedral, throw a coin far up to ring against the vault; amused
himself by taming wild horses and climbing mountains." Needless to say,
many in the Renaissance promoted themselves in various ways and
Alberti's eagerness to promote his skills should be understood, to some
extent, within that framework. (This advice should be followed in
reading the above information, some of which originates in this
so-called autobiography.)
- Alberti claimed in his "autobiography" to be an accomplished
musician and organist, but there is no hard evidence to support this
claim. In fact, musical posers were not uncommon in his day (see the
lyrics to the song Musica Son, by Francesco Landini, for complaints to this effect.) He held the appointment of canon in the metropolitan church of Florence,
and thus – perhaps – had the leisure to devote himself to this art, but
this is only speculation. Vasari also agreed with this.
- He was also interested in the drawing of maps and worked with the astronomer, astrologer, and cartographer Paolo Toscanelli.
Works
- De Pictura, 1435. On Painting, in English, De Pictura, in Latin, On Painting. Penguin Classics. 1972. ISBN 978-0-14-043331-9.
- Momus, Latin text and English translation, 2003 ISBN 0-674-00754-9
- [De re aedificatoria] (1452, Ten Books on Architecture).
Alberti, Leon Battista. De re aedificatoria. On the art of building in
ten books. (translated by Joseph Rykwert, Robert Tavernor and Neil
Leach). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988. ISBN 0-262-51060-X. ISBN 978-0-262-51060-8.
- De Cifris A Treatise on Ciphers (1467), trans. A. Zaccagnini. Foreword by David Kahn, Galimberti, Torino 1997.
- Della tranquillitá dell'animo. 1441.
- Latin, French and Italian editions of De re aedificatoria
- "Leon Battista Alberti. On Painting. A New Translation an Critical Edition", Edited and Translated by Rocco Sinisgalli,
Cambridge University Press, New York, May 2011,
ISBN 978-1-107-00062-9
- Leon Battista Alberti. On Painting. A New Translation an Critical Edition, Edited and Translated by Rocco Sinisgalli,
Cambridge University Press, New York, May 2011,
ISBN 978-1-107-00062-9
Bibliography
- Gille, Bertrand (1970). "Alberti, Leone Battista". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 96–98. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.
- Wright, D.R. Edward, "Alberti's De Pictura: Its Literary Structure and Purpose", Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 47, 1984 (1984), pp. 52–71.
- Robert Tavernor, On Alberti and the Art of Building. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-300-07615-0. ISBN 978-0-300-07615-8.
References
- ^ In Italy, this first name is usually spelled "Leone", but Alberti is known as Leon.
- ^ James Beck, "Leon Battista Alberti and the 'Night Sky' at San Lorenzo", Artibus et Historiae 10, No. 19 (1989:9–35), p. 9.
- ^ See Kelly-Gadol, Joan. Leon Battista Alberti. Universal Man of the Renaissance. University of Chicago Press, 1969;
- ^ a b Jacob Burckhard in The Civilization of the Renaissance Italy, 2.1, 1860.
- ^ Leone Battista Alberti, On Painting, editor John Richard Spencer, 1956, p. 43.
- ^ Nader El-Bizri, "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen’s Optics," Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, vol. 15, issue 2 (2005), pp. 189–218 (Cambridge University Press).
- ^ a b c d e Books and Writing website – http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/alberti.htm
- ^ Alberti,Leon Battista. On the Art of Building in Ten Books. Trans. Leach, N., Rykwert, J., & Tavenor, R. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1988
- ^ Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc., Palladio's Literary Predecessors
- ^ Further information on the Rucellai family can be found on the Italian Wikipedia article
- ^ Liane Lefaivre, Leon Battista Alberti's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997
- ^ D. Mazzini, S. Simone, Villa Medici a Fiesole. Leon Battista Alberti e il prototipo di villa rinascimentale, Centro Di, Firenze 2004
External links